High-density populations of large ungulates are common in Europe, but overabundance is only viewed as a problem when it harms humans or ecosystems—such as crop damage, reduced plant diversity, vehicle collisions, disease spread, or habitat changes. The acceptable population level varies by ecological and socio-economic context, guiding management decisions. A review of 318 studies identified six key contexts where overabundance occurs: protected areas, hunting zones, forestry, arable farming, livestock farming, and urban/peri-urban areas. Nine ungulate species were flagged as overabundant, with red deer dominating protected and hunting areas, roe deer impacting forestry, and wild boar affecting farming and urban zones. Effective monitoring and management depend on context-specific ecological indicators and tailored strategies to balance wildlife and human interests.
